Exploration of Neuroprotective Therapy

Table 1. Differentiating features of UMN and LMN disease

Feature	Upper Motor Neuron Lesion	Lower Motor Neuron Lesion
Site of the lesion	Cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord	Anterior horn cell, nerve roots, peripheral nerves, neuromuscular junction, muscles
Muscle weakness	Quadriplegia, hemiplegia, diplegia, paraplegia	Proximal (myopathy) Distal (neuropathy)
Muscle tone	Spasticity, rigidity	Hypotonia
Fasiculations	Absent	Present (particularly tongue)
Tendon reflexes	Hyperreflexia	Hypo/areflexia
Abdominal reflexes	Absent (depending on the involved spinal level)	Present
Sensory loss	Cortical sensations	Peripheral sensations
Electromyography (EMG)	Normal nerve conduction Decreased interference pattern and firing rate	Abnormal nerve conduction Large motor units Fasciculations and fibrillations

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Note. Reprinted from “Concise outline of the nervous system examination for the generalist,” by Jan MM, Al-Buhairi AR, Baeesa SS. Neurosciences (Riyadh). 2001;6:16–22 (https://nsj.org.sa/content/6/1/16). CC BY-NC.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

I extend sincere gratitude to my supervisor for their unwavering support, invaluable guidance, and scientific insight, which significantly improved this paper. Their constructive feedback enriched my research skills. I’m also deeply thankful to my boss for their leadership and patience. Their belief in my capabilities encouraged me to overcome challenges and focus on my research goals. Their invaluable contributions were key to the success of this research. Any recognition this paper receives is a testament to their dedication and guidance.

Author contributions

YS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft.

Conflicts of interest

The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This study was partially supported by the Juntendo Research Branding Project, JSPS KAKENHI I grant no. [21K07690, 21K12153, 22H04926]; a Grant-in-Aid for Special Research in Subsidies for ordinary expenses of private schools from The Promotion and Mutual Aid Corporation for Private Schools of Japan; the Brain/MINDS Beyond program grant no. [JP19dm0307101] of the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED), under grant no. [JP21wm0425006]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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