| Gut microbiota composition | |
| Gut dysbiosis | Associated with long term consumption of LC Growth of TMA producing bacteria ↑ F/B ratio and TMAO level Contributes to systemic inflammation, impairment of gut barrier function, triggering pro-inflammatory conditions
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| SCFAs production | Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Bacteroides spp., and Clostridium spp., produce beneficial SCFAs like acetate, propionate, and butyrate Essential for maintaining intestinal health, controlling immune responses, reducing inflammation, and protecting the intestinal barrier Particularly butyrate, produced by species like Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, are vital for gut epithelial integrity, reducing inflammation and supporting immune function Acetate and propionate, produced by Bacteroides species, also have immune-modulatory effects, promoting a balanced gut environment
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| Role of TMAO in inflammation | Conversion of LC into TMA and subsequently TMAO can lead to oxidative stress and inflammation, which may counteract the benefits of LC ↑ TMAO levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk and may negatively affect metabolic health by triggering systemic inflammation
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| Fatty acid metabolism | LC plays a crucial role in fatty acid metabolism by transporting long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria, where they undergo β-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA Acetyl-CoA is a key substrate in the citric acid cycle, which generates ATP, providing energy for cellular activities
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| Amino acid metabolism | LC aids in the metabolism of BCAAs such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine It helps transaminate these amino acids, converting them into keto acids for efficient energy generation
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| Mitochondrial activity | |
| Dual role in health | LC’s impact on gut microbiota and metabolic pathways is complex, as it can have both beneficial and detrimental effects While LC helps with fatty acid oxidation, energy production, and SCFA generation, its conversion to TMAO can exacerbate inflammation and oxidative stress, highlighting the importance of a balanced microbiota for optimal health While short term consumption shows benefits, long term consumption is linked to adverse cardiovascular complications
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