Summary of common scaffolding materials for bone tissue engineering. The main advantages and disadvantages are presented with examples for each material. Adapted from Ref. [37] with permission from Springer Nature, © 2025 Springer Nature
| Material Type | Main Advantages | Main Disadvantages | Examples | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural polymers | Biomimetic; some contain cell-adhesion sites; low cost | Low mechanical properties (for example, stiffness); potential immunogenicity; batch-to-batch variability | Collagen or gelatinSilkAlginate | [118–120][121–123][124–127] |
| Synthetic polymers | Wide range of compositions and properties; ease of modification | Some produce undesirable or acidic degradation products | Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)Poly(propylene fumarate)Poly(ɛ-caprolactone) | [124, 128, 129][130–132][130, 133–135] |
| Bioceramics | High compressive modulus; capable of delivering bioactive ions | Brittleness | Hydroxyapatiteβ-Tricalcium phosphateBioactive glasses (such as 45S5 composition) | [129, 133, 136, 137][128, 138–140][118, 141–143] |
| Biodegradable metals | High compressive strength | High corrosion rate; require high-temperature processing | Magnesium and its alloys | [144, 145] |
| Carbon-based nanomaterials | High tensile strength; ease of functionalization using surface groups | Limited biodegradability; potential cytotoxicity | Carbon nanotubesGraphene or graphene oxide | [146, 147][148–152] |