| Porcine decellularized valve: poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) (P3/4HB) | Dichloromethane | - | 20 | - | 20 | Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) | Hong et al., 2009 [63] The hybrid scaffolds had identical impacts on MSC proliferation and extracellular matrix formation. Increased tensile strength under load was caused by the anisotropy of the P3/4HB fibers, which carried a portion of the stress. The hybrid scaffolds were found to be superior in terms of increasing the mechanical strength of TEHVs.
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| Gelatin–chitosan polyurethane (PU) | N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF)/tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 720 ± 130 to 970 ± 160 | 20 | - | - | Endothelial cells | Wong et al., 2010 [59] The results showed that the gelatin–chitosan PU group achieved a mean cell retention rate of 80% during the duration of exposure and the shear-stress range examined. The electrospun gelatin–chitosan PU showed promising cell retention and biocompatibility characteristics, and it may be employed as a biomaterial for heart valve tissue engineering.
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| Methacrylated hyaluronic acid and methacrylated gelatinPoly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS)–poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) | Chloroform and ethanol (9:1) | - | 12.5 | 2 mL/h | 18 | Mitral valve interstitial cells (MVICs) | Eslami et al., 2014 [64] PGS stimulates ECM secretion in PGS–PCL scaffolds. The 3D distribution of mitral VICs was enhanced by the hydrogel’s presence. This hybrid approach may offer a more appropriate 3D framework for producing scaffolds for heart valve tissue development than electrospun or hydrogel scaffolds alone.
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| Decellularized bovine pericardium: polycaprolactone-chitosan | Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) | 128.78 ± 17.9 | 15 | 0.5 mL/h | 15 | Heart valve interstitial cells (hVICs) | Jahnavi et al., 2017 [65] In comparison to native valves, bio-hybrid scaffolds are at least 20 times stronger and nearly three times more rigid. Bio-hybrid scaffolds cultivated from VICs showed a distinct reaction along the axial and circumferential direction, similar to native valves, according to biaxial and uniaxial mechanical experiments.
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| Cellulose acetate | Acetone and dimethylacetamide (DMAc) (2:1) | 900 | 25 | 10–15 μL/min | 20 | Mouse fibroblasts L929 | Chainoglou et al., 2016 [46] In an effort to create an artificial valve that mimics the characteristics of a native valve, successfully developed and characterized the physicochemical and morphological properties of cellulose-acetate-based nano-scaffolds and then applied them as coverings onto the surface of the aortic heart valve. Cell growth was seen in all samples; however, the 20%_1S_24G sample exhibited the most cell proliferation and, thus, the highest level of biocompatibility.
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| Silk fibroin (SF) and poly(ester-urethane) urea (LDI-PEUU) | 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) | 465 ± 165 | 10 | 1 mL/h | 15 | Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) | Du et al., 2018 [66] All findings demonstrated that SF/LDI-PEUU (40:60) nanofibrous scaffolds satisfy the necessary requirements. The application in tissue engineering is supported by the fact that SF/LDI-PEUU nanofibers enhanced cell viability, as evidenced by cell proliferation and morphology.
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