Recent developments in 3D printing of BMMs for biomedical applications
| 3D printing technique | Materials and printed BMMs | Reference(s) |
| Tissue engineering | ||
| FDM | PLA–scaffolds | [19] |
| DIW | Alg/Gel–scaffolds | [22] |
| Alg/SF protein–scaffolds | [23] | |
| Extrusion | Alg/NC, hyaluronic acid–scaffolds | [24] |
| FDM | PCL–scaffolds | [32] |
| BJ | 45S5 BG/TCP–scaffolds | [34] |
| SLS | 45S5 BG–scaffolds | [35] |
| DIW | 45S5 BG–scaffolds | [36] |
| BGs/PVA–scaffolds | [37] | |
| Cu-doped BG-based composite scaffolds | [38] | |
| FDM | BG/PCL–scaffolds | [39] |
| BG/PLA–scaffolds | [40] | |
| 45S5 BG/PHBV–resorbable scaffolds | [41] | |
| Ag-doped BG-based ceramic scaffolds | [42] | |
| DIW | SF/Gel/BG–bone constructs | [43] |
| FDM | PCL/nano-HA–composite scaffolds | [138] |
| Drug delivery | ||
| BJ | CaP/silica-based nanocomposite implant | [139] |
| CaP/TCP/HA/dextrin-based scaffolds | [140] | |
| PBF | CaP/PHBV-based nanocomposite scaffolds | [141] |
| PAM | Levetiracetam/PVP-vinyl acetate copolymer (PVAc)–tablets | [142] |
| Ethylcellulose/HPMC/PVP/cellulose acetate–controlled release shell | [64] | |
| FDM | Haloperidol/Kollidon® VA64/Kollicoat® IR/Affinsiol™ 15 cP/HPMC acetate succinate (HPMCAS)–tablet | [143] |
| Clotrimazole/TPUs–intravaginal ring | [144] | |
| Isoniazid (INZ)/rifampicin (RFC)/hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC)/hypromellose acetate succinate (HPMC-AS)–bilayer tablet | [145] | |
| Semi-solid extrusion | Levetiracetam/HPC–tablets | [146] |
| Tacrolimus/Gelucire 44/14/Gelucire 48/16–suppositories | [147] | |
| Lamotrigine/Gel/HPMC–drug formulations | [148] | |
| SLS | Lopinavir/Kollicoat®/Candurin® NXT Ruby Red–printlets | [149] |
| Clindamycin palmitate/microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)/lactose monohydrate (LMH)–tablets | [150] | |
| SLA | Lidocaine hydrochloride/Elastic Resin–bladder devices | [151] |
| Hydrochlorothiazide/amlodipine/atenolol/irbesartan with PEGDA/diphenyl(2, 4, 6-trimethyl-benzoyl) phosphine oxide (TPO)–antihypertensive polyprintlet | [152] | |
| Direct powder extrusion (DPE) | Tramadol/HPC/polyethylene oxide (PEO)–opioid medicines | [153] |
| Itraconazole/HPC–UL, SSL, SL, and L (different HPC grades/compositions)–drug products | [154] | |
| FDM | PLA/PVA-based mouthguard | [62] |
| Surgical and diagnostic tools | ||
| SLS | Virgin and recycled Dura-Form EX plastic powder–surgical tool kit | [67] |
| FDM | PLA-based Army-Navy surgical retractor | [68] |
| PLA-based microchannel system | [75] | |
| Graphene/PLA–ring- and disc-shaped electrodes | [76] | |
| Graphene-based enzymatic biosensor | [77] | |
| Graphene/PLA–electrode | [79] | |
| DIW-AJP | Ag–microelectrode arrays | [82] |
| SLA | PEGDA–biomicrofluidic devices | [83] |
| SLS | Cu nanoparticles/polyethylene-naphthalate (PEN)–flexible touch panel | [86] |
| FDM | PLA/PAM/HPMC–hydrogel wound dressings | [69] |
| FDM | Thermoplastic–frame for magnetic focus lateral flow sensor detecting cervical cancer biomarkers | [78] |
| Implants and prosthetics | ||
| DED | Si3N4/Al2O3/HA/Ti6Al4V–composites | [92] |
| DIW | Ti/Pluronic F-127–scaffolds | [97] |
| SLM | Ti-6Al-4V-based implants | [98] |
| SLA | Composites-based dental crowns | [155] |
| SLA | Antimicrobial HA-based dental bite | [156] |
| DLP | Polymer-based dental crowns and bridges | [157] |
| DLP | Zirconia-based dental ceramic prostheses | [158] |
| MJ | Biocompatible photopolymer-based interim dental crowns | [159] |
| FDM | PEKK-based bone analogs | [117] |
| FDM | PMMA/PEEK–cranial implant | [118] |
| PMMA–medical implants | [120] | |
| PLA–interference screw | [125] | |
| DMLS | Ti-6Al-4V–porous channel dental implant | [133] |
| FDM | ABS–human skull; PEEK–porous implant | [136] |
| FDM | PLA/GS–interference fixation screws | [137] |