Recent developments in 4D printing of BMMs for biomedical applications
| 4D printing technique | Stimuli | Materials and printed BMMs | Reference(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tissue engineering | |||
| DLP | Hydration | GelMA/PEGDM–tissue scaffold | [46] |
| Extrusion | Solvent | Hyaluronan/Alg–bilayered scaffold | [47] |
| DIW | Shear strain | Oxidized and methacrylated Alg (OMA)/GelMA–cell condensate-laden bilayer system | [48] |
| DIW | Solvent | ADA-Gel-based T-shaped vascular bifurcation | [49] |
| DIW | Solvent | Methacrylated Alg (AA-MA) and methacrylated hyaluronic acid–vascular tissue | [160] |
| Solvent, near-infrared (NIR) light, and temperature | Alg/polydopamine–tissue scaffolds | [161] | |
| Inkjet | Solvent | GelMA/Gel-carboxylated-methacrylate bilayer | [162] |
| SLA | Temperature | Soybean oil epoxidized acrylate (SOEA)–cardiac tissue | [163] |
| Poly(methyl methacrylate)–neural tissue | [164] | ||
| FDM | Magnetism | PCL/iron doped HA–bone tissue | [165, 166] |
| Temperature | PLA/PCL/SOEA–muscle tissue | [167] | |
| Solvent | AA-MA/PCL–muscle tissue | [168] | |
| Temperature | SOEA–muscle tissue | [169] | |
| DIW and inkjet printing | Magnetism | Agarose/collagen type I-based cartilage tissue | [170] |
| Extrusion-based printing | Temperature | Polyurethane (PU) Commercial polymers–tissue scaffolds | [171] |
| DLP | Solvent | PEG(700)DA–tissue scaffolds | [172] |
| DIW | pH | PEG-based microgel scaffolds | [173] |
| DLP | Temperature | PCL diacrylate (PCLDA)-based bilayer membrane | [174] |
| Drug delivery | |||
| Extrusion | Humidity and temperature | PU and polyethylene–dual stimuli self-morphing structures | [175] |
| Alg-Ca2+ coordination | Pluronic F127 diacrylate macromer (F127DA)/Alg–shape memory hydrogels | [176] | |
| DLP | Magnetoelectricity | 4-hydroxybutyl acrylate (4-HBA)/urethane-polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol (PU-EO-PO) monomer/electromagnetized carbon porous nanocookies–conduit material | [63] |
| FDM | Temperature/fluid | PVA-based expandable drug delivery structures | [177] |
| Water | PVA and glycerol-based intravesical drug delivery device | [178] | |
| DIW | Temperature/pH/enzyme | Pickering emulsion gels BSA methacryloyl (MA)/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-P(NIPAAm) (thermo-sensitive ink) BSA-MA/poly[2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate]-P(DMAEMA) (pH-sensitive ink) BSA-MA + F127 (enzyme sensitive ink)–hydrogels | [179] |
| DLP-PμSL | Solvent/light | PEGDA–microneedle array | [73] |
| DIW | pH | Alg fibres-based porous scaffolds | [180] |
| FDM | pH | PVP/methacrylic acid co-polymer-based tablets | [181] |
| HPMC-AS-based tablets | [182] | ||
| Surgical and diagnostic tools | |||
| PμSL | Temperature | SMPs-based surgical gripper system | [71] |
| Jetting | Temperature | SMPs-based actuator system/self-expanded stent | [72] |
| FDM | Load | PU/fabric–wearable smart sensor | [87] |
| FDM | Motion | TPU–deformable lung | [89] |
| Implants and prosthetics | |||
| FDM | Temperature | Poly(ethylene glycol)/shape memory PLA (SMPLA)–biomimetic intestinal stents | [129] |
| DIW | Temperature | βCD-g-PCL–vascular stent | [130] |
| DIW | Temperature | PCL/acrylates-based vascular conduit | [135] |
| FDM | Temperature | Thermoplastic copolyester elastomer–vascular stent | [183] |
| PLA-based vascular stent | [184, 185] | ||
| Thermo-magnetism | PLA-based magnetic nanocomposites–vascular occluder | [186] | |
| DIW | Thermo-magnetism | Fe3O4/PLA/dichloromethane/benzophenone–vascular stent | [134] |
| SLA | Internal stress | GelMA/PEGDA–cardiac patch | [187] |
| SOEA/graphene–neural conduit | [188] | ||
| SLA | Temperature | PCL/isocyanato ethyl methacrylate–tracheal stent | [189] |
| DLP and DIW | NIR light and temperature | Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, poly(propylene glycol) bis(2-aminopropyl) ether, and decylamine–cardiac patch | [190] |
| DIW | Fe3+ ions, sodium lactate/UV | Acrylamide-acrylic acid/cellulose nanocrystal–bilayer hydrogel stent | [191] |
| FDM | Magnetism | Fe2O3/shape memory PLA–occluders | [192] |