Causes of ductopenia
| Causes | Examples |
|---|---|
| Toxins and drugs | Anti-microbials (amoxicillin/clavulanate, azithromycin, erythromycin, flucloxacillin, quinolones, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, terbinafine, thiabendazole, etc.) |
| NSAIDs (ibuprofen, diclofenac) | |
| Psychotropics (chlorpromazine, amitriptyline, imipramine, carbamazepine, etc.) | |
| Herbal and dietary supplements (Artemisia annua, Gluco-Ease Plus, Hydroxycut) | |
| Immunologic | Primary biliary cholangitis |
| Immune cholangitis | |
| Primary sclerosing cholangitis | |
| Sarcoidosis | |
| Infectious | Cytomegalovirus |
| Rubella | |
| Hepatitis B and C viruses | |
| Epstein-Barr virus | |
| COVID-19 | |
| Human immunodeficiency virus | |
| Transplant-related diseases | Chronic graft-versus-host disease |
| Chronic ductopenic rejection | |
| Neoplastic disorders | Hodgkin disease |
| Langerhans cell histiocytosis | |
| Ischemic cholangiopathy | Surgical procedures (liver transplantation, cholecystectomy with arterial injury) |
| Treatments (transarterial chemotherapy or chemoembolization) | |
| Systemic disease with microvascular involvement | |
| Intensive care unit cholangiopathy | |
| Congenital, developmental, and genetic diseases | Late feature of extrahepatic biliary atresia |
| Genetic diseases: Alagille syndrome, polycystic liver diseases, fibropolycystic liver diseases (Caroli disease and congenital hepatic fibrosis), cystic fibrosis, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, α1-antitrypsin deficiency | |
| Idiopathic | Non-syndromic paucity of bile ducts in infancy without identifiable etiology |
| Idiopathic adulthood ductopenia |
NSAIDs: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs