Toxicity evaluation of FD
| S/N | Methods | Solvent | Plant parts | Concentrations | Major findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Methanol, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and butanol | Leaves | 0.01–100 mg/mL | The extracts also had an anti-proliferative activity that was dosage dependant. All three cell lines tested were practically ineffective against both butanol and ethyl acetate extracts (IC50 values > 1,000 g/mL). All three cell lines responded well after 48 h of treatment with methanol extract | [1] | |
| 2 | Alkaline comet assay | Aqueous | Leaves | 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625, 0.3125, and 0.15625 mg/mL | No significant differences were identified in the number of micro-nucleated cells compared to the control group. The extract did not enhance the number of revertant colonies in any strains tested at levels up to 5,000 μg/plate. To summarize, additional research in animal models is required to verify FDA’s non-geno toxic actions | [128] |
| 3 | In vivo | Methanol, n-hexane, chloroform, and n-butanol | Leaves | 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg | Unlike hazardous chloroform and hexane sub extracts, hydrophilic methanol extract resulted in zero per cent mortality up to 6,400 mg/kg in 14 days. After four weeks of administration of 200 mg/kg, it did not generate liver or renal damage. The methanol extract revealed a low level of oral toxicity and diverse antidiabetic effects | [81] |
| 4 | MTT | Aqueous | Leaves and fruits | 1 ng/mL to 1 mg/mL | Lowering the F. deltoidea leaf extract concentration from 1 mg/mL to 1 ng/mL increased cell viability | [21] |
| 5 | MTT | Aqueous | 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 μg/mL | The extract was not harmful at any concentrations tested because microglial cell viability was consistently more than 80% | [43] | |
| 6 | In vivo | Leaves | 2,000 mg/kg | At oral doses of 2 g/kg, neither vitexin (1) nor isovitexin (2) showed any symptoms of toxicity in normoglycemic mice or diabetic rats | [82] | |
| 7 | In vivo | Petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol | Leaves | 50–5,000 mg/kg BW | All the doses examined resulted in no treatment-related deaths. After 14 days, there were no significant changes in the animals’ behaviour, such as apathy and hyperactivity, as well as illness and mortality | [83] |
| 8 | MTT | Hot aqueous | Leaves | The maximum extract concentration that did not affect cell viability was 0.1% (w/v) | [125] | |
| 9 | Leaves | 1,000 mg/BW | This group did not affect glycaemia variables, although total and LDL cholesterol values were dramatically reduced. Vital signs and safety lab tests were within normal ranges at baseline and after 8 weeks of intervention, there were no significant differences between groups or attributable to the intervention | [130] | ||
| 10 | Brine shrimp lethality assay and in vivo | Aqueous | Leaves | According to the research, the extracts had no harmful effects on brine shrimp (up to 4,000 μg/mL) or rats (up to 0.2 per cent BW) | [89] | |
| 11 | In vivo | Ethanolic | Leaves | The LD50 of the extract was found to be more than 5,000 mg/kg in an acute toxicity assay. Food consumption, BW, organ weight, mortality, clinical chemistry, haematological, gross pathology, and histopathology were all unaffected by the sub-chronic toxicity study results | [131] | |
| 12 | In vivo | Leaves | 1,000 mg/kg | It was shown that up to 1,000 mg/kg of F. deltoidea leaf extract was not harmful | [124] | |
| 13 | In vivo | Aqueous | Leaves | 100 mg/kg/day | Uterine abnormalities in the BPA-exposed rats significantly improved after six weeks of concomitant therapy with F. deltoidea. The myometrium and glandular epithelium histology seemed normal, and mitotic patterns were present in the interstitial gaps between the stromal cells | [129] |
| 14 | In vivo | Ethanol | Leaves | 125, 250, 500, and 1,000 mg/kg BW for 28 days | The leaves’ ethanolic extract has no harmful effects and does not alter the histological structure of the testes | [100] |
| 15 | In vivo | Aqueous | Leaves | 100 mg/kg/BW | The data demonstrated that F. deltoidea had a protective effect against BPA-induced ovarian damage. Normalization of FSH and sexual steroid hormone (progesterone) levels supported this conclusion | [132] |
| 16 | In vivo | Ethanolic aqueous | Leaves | 5, 50, 300, and 2,000 mg/kg | The LD50 of the extracts for all kinds was higher than 2,000 mg/kg BW, and the acute toxicity test revealed no symptoms of morbidity or mortality. The kidneys and liver’s histopathological evaluation revealed no abnormalities | [84] |
| 17 | In vivo | Fruits | According to the testing data, the tensile strength of carbon nanotube (CNT)-filled composites increased by 7.73% compared to the control unfilled hybrid composites. For the CNT-filled composites, the flexural characteristics decreased by 49.37% compared to the control, which had no CNTs | [133] | ||
| 18 | In vivo | Methanol: distilled water (60:40 % v/v) | Leaves | 300, 2,000, and 4,000 mg/kg | Some important organs underwent haematological and histological examination. Mortality was not recorded at any point during the study in either the acute or sub chronic toxicity groups Encapsulated plant extracts (600 and 1,000 mg/kg) increased serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) levels significantly, and histological assessment of the liver, kidneys, and spleen showed normal tissue limits | [134] |
| 19 | Viability assay | Methanol | 100 μL | Viability was only shown to be hazardous at 500 and 1,000 μg/mL (P < 0.001) | [76] | |
| 20 | In vivo | Ethanol | Leaves | 125, 250, 500, and 1,000 mg/kg BW | The absence of toxic symptoms and death at a 2,000 mg/kg BW dose suggests that the LD50 was higher. Throughout this time, no changes in the mouse’s behaviour, substantial weight changes, haematological parameters, or serum biochemistry were noticed | [135] |