Exploration of Targeted Anti-tumor Therapy

Table 1. Cytokines and their roles in gastric cancer

Sl. No.	Cytokine	Type	Role in gastric cancer	Mechanism	Potential therapeutic target	Reference
1	IL-2	Pro-inflammatory	Tumor suppression	Stimulates T cells and NK cells	Cancer immunotherapy	[17]
2	IFN-α	Pro-inflammatory	Enhances antitumor immunity	Activates immune responses	Cytokine therapy	[18]
3	TNF-α	Pro-inflammatory	Tumor necrosis	Induces apoptosis in tumor cells	Localized cytokine delivery	[19]
4	IL-10	Immunosuppressive	Promotes tumor evasion	Suppresses immune system	Anti-IL-10 antibodies	[20]
5	TGF-β	Immunosuppressive	Promotes tumor growth and metastasis	Modulates T cell response	TGF-β inhibitors	[21]
6	IL-6	Pro-inflammatory	Tumor progression	Activates signaling pathways in cancer cells	Anti-IL-6 therapy	[22]
7	IL-8	Pro-inflammatory	Promotes angiogenesis and metastasis	Attracts immune cells to tumor sites	CXCR2 inhibitors	[23]
8	IL-1β	Pro-inflammatory	Tumor proliferation	Activates inflammatory pathways	IL-1 receptor antagonists	[24]
9	IL-12	Pro-inflammatory	Stimulates cytotoxic T cells	Induces Th1 responses	IL-12 agonists	[22]
10	IL-17	Pro-inflammatory	Tumor growth and angiogenesis	Activate pro-inflammatory pathways	Anti-IL-17 antibodies	[17]
11	IL-22	Immunosuppressive	Tumor promotion	Modulates immune responses in TME	IL-22 inhibitors	[25]
12	GM-CSF	Pro-inflammatory	Enhances tumor immune response	Stimulates dendritic cells	GM-CSF cytokine therapy	[26]
13	IL-15	Pro-inflammatory	Enhances T and NK cell activity	Increasing cytotoxic activity	IL-15 superagonists	[27]
14	IFN-γ	Pro-inflammatory	Antitumor immune response	Activates macrophages and CTLs	IFN-γ therapy	[28]
15	IL-18	Pro-inflammatory	Promotes tumor immunity	Induces IFN-γ production	IL-18 agonists	[29]

Return to article view

IL-2: interleukin-2; NK: natural killer; IFN-α: interferon-alpha; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TGF-β: transforming growth factor-beta; TME: tumor microenvironment; CTLs: cytotoxic T lymphocytes

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to their parent institutions for their continued support, resources, and encouragement throughout this research. Their infrastructural and administrative assistance was instrumental in the successful completion of this work.

Author contributions

MMCM: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. BSB: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. VAS: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation. SA: Writing—review & editing. HC: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Jamil D, Palaniappan S, Lokman A, Naseem M, Zia SS. Diagnosis of Gastric Cancer Using Machine Learning Techniques in Healthcare Sector: A Survey. Informatica. 2021;45:147–66. [DOI]

Ramachandran S, Verma AK, Dev K, Goyal Y, Bhatt D, Alsahli MA, et al. Role of Cytokines and Chemokines in NSCLC Immune Navigation and Proliferation. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021;2021:5563746. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Fang J, Lu Y, Zheng J, Jiang X, Shen H, Shang X, et al. Exploring the crosstalk between endothelial cells, immune cells, and immune checkpoints in the tumor microenvironment: new insights and therapeutic implications. Cell Death Dis. 2023;14:586. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Tahmasebi S, Alimohammadi M, Khorasani S, Rezaei N. Pro-tumorigenic and Anti-tumorigenic Roles of Pro-inflammatory Cytokines in Cancer. In: Rezaei N, editor. Handbook of Cancer and Immunology. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2022. pp. 1–25. [DOI]

Abdul-Rahman T, Ghosh S, Badar SM, Nazir A, Bamigbade GB, Aji N, et al. The paradoxical role of cytokines and chemokines at the tumor microenvironment: a comprehensive review. Eur J Med Res. 2024;29:124. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Chen C, Wang Z, Ding Y, Qin Y. Tumor microenvironment-mediated immune evasion in hepatocellular carcinoma. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1133308. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Majidpoor J, Mortezaee K. Interleukin-2 therapy of cancer-clinical perspectives. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;98:107836. [DOI] [PubMed]

MacDonald A, Wu TC, Hung CF. Interleukin 2-Based Fusion Proteins for the Treatment of Cancer. J Immunol Res. 2021;2021:7855808. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Deckers J, Anbergen T, Hokke AM, de Dreu A, Schrijver DP, de Bruin K, et al. Engineering cytokine therapeutics. Nat Rev Bioeng. 2023;1:286–303. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Rybchenko VS, Aliev TK, Panina AA, Kirpichnikov MP, Dolgikh DA. Targeted Cytokine Delivery for Cancer Treatment: Engineering and Biological Effects. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15:336. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

11.

Yu S, Wang Y, He P, Shao B, Liu F, Xiang Z, et al. Effective Combinations of Immunotherapy and Radiotherapy for Cancer Treatment. Front Oncol. 2022;12:809304. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

Liang JL, Luo GF, Chen WH, Zhang XZ. Recent Advances in Engineered Materials for Immunotherapy-Involved Combination Cancer Therapy. Adv Mater. 2021;33:2007630. [DOI] [PubMed]

13.

Mallick R, Basak S, Chowdhury P, Bhowmik P, Das RK, Banerjee A, et al. Targeting Cytokine-Mediated Inflammation in Brain Disorders: Developing New Treatment Strategies. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025;18:104. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Bi Q, Wu JY, Qiu XM, Zhang JD, Sun ZJ, Wang W. Tumor-Associated Inflammation: The Tumor-Promoting Immunity in the Early Stages of Tumorigenesis. J Immunol Res. 2022;2022:3128933. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Ghemrawi R, Abuamer L, Kremesh S, Hussien G, Ahmed R, Mousa W, et al. Revolutionizing Cancer Treatment: Recent Advances in Immunotherapy. Biomedicines. 2024;12:2158. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Bandara S, Raveendran S. Current Landscape and Future Directions in Cancer Immunotherapy: Therapies, Trials, and Challenges. Cancers (Basel). 2025;17:821. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Yang YL, Yang F, Huang ZQ, Li YY, Shi HY, Sun Q, et al. T cells, NK cells, and tumor-associated macrophages in cancer immunotherapy and the current state of the art of drug delivery systems. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1199173. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Fenton SE, Saleiro D, Platanias LC. Type I and II Interferons in the Anti-Tumor Immune Response. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13:1037. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Zhu Q, Huang X, Deng B, Guan L, Zhou H, Shi B, et al. Tumor micro-environment induced TRAIL secretion from engineered macrophages for anti-tumor therapy. Cell Immunol. 2024;403–404:104857. [DOI] [PubMed]

20.

Batchu RB, Gruzdyn OV, Kolli BK, Dachepalli R, Umar PS, Rai SK, et al. IL-10 Signaling in the Tumor Microenvironment of Ovarian Cancer. In: Birbrair A, editor. Tumor Microenvironment : The Role of Interleukins – Part B. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021. pp. 51–65. [DOI] [PubMed]

21.

Singh S, Gouri V, Samant M. TGF-β in correlation with tumor progression, immunosuppression and targeted therapy in colorectal cancer. Med Oncol. 2023;40:335. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

Jiang J, Zhu F, Zhang H, Sun T, Fu F, Chen X, et al. Luteolin suppresses the growth of colon cancer cells by inhibiting the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway. J Gastrointest Oncol. 2022;13:1722–32. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

23.

Rose-John S. Therapeutic targeting of IL-6 trans-signaling. Cytokine. 2021;144:155577. [DOI] [PubMed]

24.

Glassman CR, Mathiharan YK, Jude KM, Su L, Panova O, Lupardus PJ, et al. Structural basis for IL-12 and IL-23 receptor sharing reveals a gateway for shaping actions on T versus NK cells. Cell. 2021;184:983–99.e24. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Hunzeker ZE, Zhao L, Kim AM, Parker JM, Zhu Z, Xiao H, et al. The role of IL-22 in cancer. Med Oncol. 2024;41:240. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Morand S, Devanaboyina M, Fung C, Royfman R, Filipiak L, Stanbery L, et al. GM-CSF: Anti-Cancer Immune Response and Therapeutic Application. J Vaccines Vaccin. 2021;12:442.

27.

Zhang S, Zhao J, Bai X, Handley M, Shan F. Biological effects of IL-15 on immune cells and its potential for the treatment of cancer. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;91:107318. [DOI] [PubMed]

28.

Tan Y, Wang M, Zhang Y, Ge S, Zhong F, Xia G, et al. Tumor-Associated Macrophages: A Potential Target for Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2021;11:693517. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

29.

Somm E, Jornayvaz FR. Interleukin-18 in metabolism: From mice physiology to human diseases. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:971745. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

30.

Balkhi S, Bilato G, De Lerma Barbaro A, Orecchia P, Poggi A, Mortara L. Efficacy of Anti-Cancer Immune Responses Elicited Using Tumor-Targeted IL-2 Cytokine and Its Derivatives in Combined Preclinical Therapies. Vaccines (Basel). 2025;13:69. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Labani-Motlagh A, Ashja-Mahdavi M, Loskog A. The Tumor Microenvironment: A Milieu Hindering and Obstructing Antitumor Immune Responses. Front Immunol. 2020;11:940. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

32.

Blaauboer A, Sideras K, van Eijck CHJ, Hofland LJ. Type I interferons in pancreatic cancer and development of new therapeutic approaches. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2021;159:103204. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

Fang F, Zhang T, Li Q, Chen X, Jiang F, Shen X. The tumor immune-microenvironment in gastric cancer. Tumori. 2022;108:541–51. [DOI] [PubMed]

34.

Zhang X, Wu J. LINC00665 promotes cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis by activating the TGF-β pathway in gastric cancer. Pathol Res Pract. 2021;224:153492. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Yi M, Li T, Niu M, Zhang H, Wu Y, Wu K, et al. Targeting cytokine and chemokine signaling pathways for cancer therapy. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2024;9:176. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

Overwijk WW, Tagliaferri MA, Zalevsky J. Engineering IL-2 to Give New Life to T Cell Immunotherapy. Annu Rev Med. 2021;72:281–311. [DOI] [PubMed]

37.

Borówka M, Łącki-Zynzeling S, Nicze M, Kozak S, Chudek J. Adverse Renal Effects of Anticancer Immunotherapy: A Review. Cancers (Basel). 2022;14:4086. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Ding H, Wang G, Yu Z, Sun H, Wang L. Role of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and IFN-γ receptor 1/2 (IFNγR1/2) in regulation of immunity, infection, and cancer development: IFN-γ-dependent or independent pathway. Biomed Pharmacother. 2022;155:113683. [DOI] [PubMed]

39.

Appleton E, Hassan J, Chan Wah Hak C, Sivamanoharan N, Wilkins A, Samson A, et al. Kickstarting Immunity in Cold Tumours: Localised Tumour Therapy Combinations With Immune Checkpoint Blockade. Front Immunol. 2021;12:754436. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

40.

Hu M, Huang L. Strategies targeting tumor immune and stromal microenvironment and their clinical relevance. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2022;183:114137. [DOI] [PubMed]

41.

Stenger TD, Miller JS. Therapeutic approaches to enhance natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Front Immunol. 2024;15:1356666. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

42.

Rallis KS, Corrigan AE, Dadah H, George AM, Keshwara SM, Sideris M, et al. Cytokine-based Cancer Immunotherapy: Challenges and Opportunities for IL-10. Anticancer Res. 2021;41:3247–52. [DOI] [PubMed]

43.

Dakhel S, Lizak C, Matasci M, Mock J, Villa A, Neri D, et al. An Attenuated Targeted-TNF Localizes to Tumors In Vivo and Regains Activity at the Site of Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:10020. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

44.

Nagata K, Nishiyama C. IL-10 in Mast Cell-Mediated Immune Responses: Anti-Inflammatory and Proinflammatory Roles. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:4972. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

45.

Zhao H, Wei J, Sun J. Roles of TGF-β signaling pathway in tumor microenvirionment and cancer therapy. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;89:107101. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

Li R, Wen A, Lin J. Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in the Formation of the Pre-Metastatic Niche. Cancers (Basel). 2020;12:3752. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

47.

Xin Z, Qu S, Qu Y, Xu Y, Liu R, Sun D, et al. Emerging IL-12-based nanomedicine for cancer therapy. Nano Today. 2024;57:102331. [DOI]

48.

De Benedetti F, Prencipe G, Bracaglia C, Marasco E, Grom AA. Targeting interferon-γ in hyperinflammation: opportunities and challenges. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2021;17:678–91. [DOI] [PubMed]

49.

Di Gioacchino M, Della Valle L, Allegra A, Pioggia G, Gangemi S. AllergoOncology: Role of immune cells and immune proteins. Clin Transl Allergy. 2022;12:e12133. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

50.

Zhou Y, Husman T, Cen X, Tsao T, Brown J, Bajpai A, et al. Interleukin 15 in Cell-Based Cancer Immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:7311. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

51.

Zhu YH, Zheng JH, Jia QY, Duan ZH, Yao HF, Yang J, et al. Immunosuppression, immune escape, and immunotherapy in pancreatic cancer: focused on the tumor microenvironment. Cell Oncol (Dordr). 2023;46:17–48. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Mortara L, Balza E, Bruno A, Poggi A, Orecchia P, Carnemolla B. Anti-cancer Therapies Employing IL-2 Cytokine Tumor Targeting: Contribution of Innate, Adaptive and Immunosuppressive Cells in the Anti-tumor Efficacy. Front Immunol. 2018;9:2905. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

53.

Cui W, Hull L, Zizzo A, Wang L, Lin B, Zhai M, et al. Pharmacokinetic Study of rhIL-18BP and Its Effect on Radiation-Induced Cytokine Changes in Mouse Serum and Intestine. Toxics. 2023;11:35. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

54.

Brusini R, Varna M, Couvreur P. Advanced nanomedicines for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2020;157:161–78. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

55.

Gottschlich A, Endres S, Kobold S. Therapeutic Strategies for Targeting IL-1 in Cancer. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13:477. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

56.

Metanat Y, Viktor P, Amajd A, Kaur I, Hamed AM, Abed Al-Abadi NK, et al. The paths toward non-viral CAR-T cell manufacturing: A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art methods. Life Sci. 2024;348:122683. [DOI] [PubMed]

57.

Yasasve M, Manjusha M, Saravanan M. Polymorphism in pro-inflammatory cytokines and their genetic susceptibility towards oral precancerous lesions and oral cancer. Oral Oncol. 2022;133:106027. [DOI] [PubMed]

58.

Fu Y, Tang R, Zhao X. Engineering cytokines for cancer immunotherapy: a systematic review. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1218082. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

59.

Brouillard A, Deshpande N, Kulkarni AA. Engineered Multifunctional Nano- and Biological Materials for Cancer Immunotherapy. Adv Healthc Mater. 2021;10:2001680. [DOI] [PubMed]

60.

Saadh MJ, Rasulova I, Khalil M, Farahim F, Sârbu I, Ciongradi CI, et al. Natural killer cell-mediated immune surveillance in cancer: Role of tumor microenvironment. Pathol Res Pract. 2024;254:155120. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Wang S, Cheng K, Chen K, Xu C, Ma P, Dang G, et al. Nanoparticle-based medicines in clinical cancer therapy. Nano Today. 2022;45:101512. [DOI]

62.

Saadh MJ, Baher H, Li Y, Chaitanya M, Arias-Gonzáles JL, Allela OQB, et al. The bioengineered and multifunctional nanoparticles in pancreatic cancer therapy: Bioresponisive nanostructures, phototherapy and targeted drug delivery. Environ Res. 2023;233:116490. [DOI] [PubMed]

63.

Okiyama N, Tanaka R. Immune-related adverse events in various organs caused by immune checkpoint inhibitors. Allergol Int. 2022;71:169–78. [DOI] [PubMed]

64.

Wang Z, Pang S, Liu X, Dong Z, Tian Y, Ashrafizadeh M, et al. Chitosan- and hyaluronic acid-based nanoarchitectures in phototherapy: Combination cancer chemotherapy, immunotherapy and gene therapy. Int J Biol Macromol. 2024;273:132579. [DOI] [PubMed]

65.

Zhu S, Wang Y, Tang J, Cao M. Radiotherapy induced immunogenic cell death by remodeling tumor immune microenvironment. Front Immunol. 2022;13:1074477. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

66.

Mirlekar B, Pylayeva-Gupta Y. IL-12 Family Cytokines in Cancer and Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13:167. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

67.

Domingo IK, Latif A, Bhavsar AP. Pro-Inflammatory Signalling PRRopels Cisplatin-Induced Toxicity. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:7227. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

68.

Jimbu L, Mesaros O, Neaga A, Nanut AM, Tomuleasa C, Dima D, et al. The Potential Advantage of Targeting Both PD-L1/PD-L2/PD-1 and IL-10-IL-10R Pathways in Acute Myeloid Leukemia. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2021;14:1105. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

69.

Elebiyo TC, Rotimi D, Evbuomwan IO, Maimako RF, Iyobhebhe M, Ojo OA, et al. Reassessing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in anti-angiogenic cancer therapy. Cancer Treat Res Commun. 2022;32:100620. [DOI] [PubMed]

70.

Donlon NE, Power R, Hayes C, Reynolds JV, Lysaght J. Radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and the tumour microenvironment: Turning an immunosuppressive milieu into a therapeutic opportunity. Cancer Lett. 2021;502:84–96. [DOI] [PubMed]

71.

Park K, Veena MS, Shin DS. Key Players of the Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022;10:830208. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

72.

Zhou Y. HER2/neu-based vaccination with li-Key hybrid, GM-CSF immunoadjuvant and trastuzumab as a potent triple-negative breast cancer treatment. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2023;149:6711–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

73.

Braumüller H, Mauerer B, Andris J, Berlin C, Wieder T, Kesselring R. The Cytokine Network in Colorectal Cancer: Implications for New Treatment Strategies. Cells. 2023;12:138. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

74.

Balagopal S, Sasaki K, Kaur P, Nikolaidi M, Ishihara J. Emerging approaches for preventing cytokine release syndrome in CAR-T cell therapy. J Mater Chem B. 2022;10:7491–511. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

75.

Ehrlich M, Bacharach E. Oncolytic Virotherapy: The Cancer Cell Side. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13:939. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

76.

Chen J, Ding ZY, Li S, Liu S, Xiao C, Li Z, et al. Targeting transforming growth factor-β signaling for enhanced cancer chemotherapy. Theranostics. 2021;11:1345–63. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

77.

Kumaravel JJ, Anbalagan G, Selvamani M, Elangovan D, Subramanian B. An exciting new approach to cancer treatment: Cryo-immune engineering and its mechanism. Oral Oncol Rep. 2024;10:100359. [DOI]

78.

Zhang Z, Liu X, Chen D, Yu J. Radiotherapy combined with immunotherapy: the dawn of cancer treatment. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2022;7:258. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

79.

Kuske M, Haist M, Jung T, Grabbe S, Bros M. Immunomodulatory Properties of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors—More than Boosting T-Cell Responses? Cancers (Basel). 2022;14:1710. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

80.

Kannan B, Jayaseelan VP, Arumugam P. Immunotherapy for oral cancer treatment through targeting of IDO1 and its pathway. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2023;124:101375. [DOI] [PubMed]

81.

Zheng X, Wu Y, Bi J, Huang Y, Cheng Y, Li Y, et al. The use of supercytokines, immunocytokines, engager cytokines, and other synthetic cytokines in immunotherapy. Cell Mol Immunol. 2022;19:192–209. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

82.

Senthil R, Raghunandhakumar S. Helping anti-cancer activity of cetuximab (Erbitux) by monoclonal antibody conjugated nanocurcumin - In vitro studies on human oral squamous carcinoma cell line (OECM). Oral Oncol Rep. 2024;9:100250. [DOI]

83.

Ji S, Chen H, Yang K, Zhang G, Mao B, Hu Y, et al. Peripheral cytokine levels as predictive biomarkers of benefit from immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer therapy. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;129:110457. [DOI] [PubMed]

84.

Brands X, Haak BW, Klarenbeek AM, Butler J, Uhel F, Qin W, et al. An epigenetic and transcriptomic signature of immune tolerance in human monocytes through multi-omics integration. Genome Med. 2021;13:131. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

85.

Xue D, Hsu E, Fu YX, Peng H. Next-generation cytokines for cancer immunotherapy. Antib Ther. 2021;4:123–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

86.

Catanese S, Lordick F. Targeted and immunotherapy in the era of personalised gastric cancer treatment. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2021;50–51:101738. [DOI] [PubMed]