Overview of techniques for the analytical characterization and determination of NMs
| Classification | Techniques | Relevant insight | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Microscopic techniques | AFM, SEM, TEM, NSOM, SPM, CLSM, STEM, XRM, STXM | Particle size, distribution morphology, surface texture, electrical, shape, and aggregation state | [37–48] |
| Spectroscopic techniques | XRD, XRF, XAS, XPX | Chemical analysis of surfaces | [37, 41, 42] |
| SLS, DLS, NS, SAXS, LIBD, Raman spectroscopy, LIF, NMR, photon correlation spectroscopy | Particle size, distribution morphology, surface texture, electrostatic charge, shape, and aggregation state | [37, 38, 40–42, 44, 51–53] | |
| Raman spectroscopy, LIF, UV-Vis, infrared spectroscopy, NMR | Chemical characterization | [37, 38, 40–42, 44, 51, 53, 54] | |
| Mass spectrometry | TOF, QLIT, IT, single quadrupole, QQ, QTOF | Chemical characterization | [40, 42, 55–57] |
| Microfluidic technology | NMs-based microfluidic sensing | Optical, electrical, magnetic, and acoustic detection | [61–67] |
| Microfluidic-based NMs synthesis | Synthesis of 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D NMs | [64–71] | |
| Separation techniques based on size criterion | SEC, HDC, FFF | Separation and quantification of NMs | [72–86] |
| Separation techniques based on chemical structure criterion | CE modes, IMS/DMA | [87–89] |
AFM: atomic force microscopy; SEM: scanning electron microscopy; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; STEM: scanning TEM; NSOM: near field-scanning optical microscopy; SPM: scanning probe microscopy; CLSM: confocal laser scanning microscopy; XRM: X-ray microscopy; STXM: scanning transmission XRM; XRD: X-ray diffraction; XRF: X-ray fluorescence; XAS: X-ray absorption; XPX: X-ray photoelectron; SLS: static light scattering; DLS: dynamic light scattering; NS: neutron scattering; SAXS: small-angle X-ray scattering; LIBD: lased-induced breakdown detection; LIF: lased-induced fluorescence; UV-Vis: ultraviolet-visible; NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance; TOF: time-of-flight; IT: ion trap; QLIT: quadrupole linear IT; QQ: triple quadrupole; QTOF: quadruple TOF; SEC: size exclusion chromatography; HDC: hydrodynamic chromatography; FFF: field flow fractionation; CE: capillary electrophoresis; IMS/DMA: ion-mobility spectrometry/differential mobility analysis