Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 1

Analytical performance of methodologies developed for the determination of sterigmatocystin (STE) in food from 2021 to 2024

Sample	Extraction		Determination		LOD/LOQ (μg/kg or µg/L)	Recovery (%)	Concentration levels (μg/kg) (number of samples, detection rate)	Ref
Brown rice, wheat	25 g sample, 100 mL ACN:water (17:3, v/v) SPE (Horiba Aflaking IAC) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS InertSustain C18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 3 µm) 2 mM NH₄Ac in water/2 mM NH₄Ac in ACN		0.02–0.03/0.05–0.09	86–102	Brown rice 0.35–5.70 Polished rice 0.02–0.30 Wheat 0.05–2.20 Bread 0.02–0.20 Baked sweets 0.01–0.20 Noodles 0.01–0.80	[23]
Rice, maize, soybean	5 g sample, 25 mL MeOH:water (7:3, v/v) 30 min shaking SPE (HMON@MIP) TFA + hexane derivatization Dried and reconstituted		LC-FD Symmetry C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) ACN:water (32:68, v/v)		-	81–95	-	[24]
Chilli, pepper	50 g sample, 10% KCl in ACN LLE (2x hexane) LLE (hexane:CHCl₃, 1:1 v/v) Dried and reconstituted		GO-FAM-FRET		24/132	71–89	-	[25]
Soaked rice, steamed rice, fermented rice, fermented wine	QuEChERS		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC HSS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 0.1% FA + 2 mM AF in water/0.1% FA + 2 mM AF in ACN		0.01–0.07/0.03–0.25	73–119	-	[26]
Wheat	10 g sample, 25 mL ACN:water (9:1, v/v), 1 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl 30 min shacking 20 min centrifugation MSPE (Fe₃O₄-MIP) elution 5 mL MeOH:TEA (9:1, v/v) 20 min shaking Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD		0.63/-	88–97	3.4–4.5	[27]
Cereals, nuts, vegetables, oil, noodle, paste, seasoned food, instant food	5 g sample, 20 mL 0.1% FA in ACN:water (1:1, v/v) 30 min shaking 10 min centrifugation SPE (Isolute Myco) elution 2 mL 0.1% FA in ACN + 4 mL MeOH Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Imtakt Cadenza C18 (100 mm × 2 mm, 3 μm) 0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in water/0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in MeOH		0.4–0.9/1.2–2.8	69–112	Processed foods 0.08–1.93 (n = 522, 4.2%) Agricultural products 0.08–10.07 (n = 613, 3.9%)	[28]
Black, green, and Oolong teas	QuEChERS 5.0 g sample, ACN:water (75:25, v/v) 30 min UAE, 1 g NaCl, 1 g MgSO₄ 5 min centrifugation dSPE (C18) 5 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Shim-pack XR-ODS III (75 mm × 2.0 mm, 1.6 µm) 0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in water/0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in ACN		0.04–0.12/0.13–0.40	101–118	0.13–0.48 (n = 126, 13.5%)	[29]
Wheat	5 g sample, 20 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation MSPE (MHNTs@MIP) elution 5.3 mL EtOH:HAc (9:1, v/v) Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD Hedera ODS-2 (250 mm × 4.6 mm) MeOH:water (60:40 v/v)		1.1/3.5	89–103	-	[30]
Roasted coffee bean, black pepper	10 g sample, 40 mL MeOH:water (8:2, v/v) 5 min shaking 2 min centrifugation SPE (Envi-carb SPE) elution 6 mL toluene Hexane cleaning SPE (IAC) elution 2 mL ACN		LC-MS/MS Acquity CSH C18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) 0.05 M FA and AF in MeOH:water (8:2, v/v)/water		0.03/0.10	92–105	0.08–0.87 (n = 18, 22%)	[31]
Rice, wheat	5 g sample, 10 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation Dried and redissolved in 10 mL water 15 min dSPE [SiO₂@mPMO-IL(im)₂] elution 2 mL MeOH 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS ODS (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) ACN:MeOH:water (22:22:55, v/v/v)/ACN:MeOH:water (35:35:30, v/v/v)		0.9–1.5/3.0–4.5	92–102	-	[32]
Coix seed	5 g sample, 20 mL 0.1% FA in ACN:water (7:3, v/v) 30 min mechanically shaking 5 min centrifugation		SIDA-UHPLC-MS/MS		0.03/0.10	83–88	LOQ–23 (n = 60, 83%)	[33]
Mango, litchi, longan, and their products	2 g sample, 10 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation dSPE (PSA, C18) 10 min vortex shaking 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted tube		LC-MS/MS Acquity BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) Water/0.2% FA in ACN		0.01/0.04	84–116	-	[34]
Honey	1.5 g sample, 3 mL water, 2.5 mL ACN, 1 g MgSO₄, 0.25 g NaCl, 0.25 g Na₃Cit, 0.125 g Na₂HCit 1 min hand shaking 10 min centrifugation 2 min dSPE (MgSO₄) 10 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Eclipse Plus C18 RRHT (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 µm) 0.2 M NH₄HCO₃ in water/0.2 M NH₄HCO₃ in ACN		0.3/1.0	101–103	0.4–18.7 (n = 57, 3.5%)	[35]
Pale lager beer	25 mL sample, pH adjustment to 7.4 SPE (11⁺Myco MS-PREP IAC) elution 2 mL MeOH Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm) 1 mM NH₄Ac + 0.5% HAc + 0.1% FA in water/0.5% HAc + 0.1% FA in MeOH		-	27	-	[36]
Rice	5 g sample, 10 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted in 10 mL water 25 min MSPE (Fe₃O₄/ZIFs) elution 2 mL 10% FA in ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD ODS column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) Water/0.05% H₃PO₄ in ACN		0.4/1.2	79–95	1.2–2.2 (n = 56, 3.6%)	[37]
Cocoa beans	7.5 g sample, 18 mL 5% HAc in ACN:water (7:3, v/v), 3 g NaCl 60 min shaking 15 min freezing, –70°C 10 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) 0.1% FA + 5 mM AF + 2% MeOH in water/0.1% FA in ACN		3/10	97–109	10–11 (n = 135, 1.5%)	[38]
Spice, herb	-		LC-MS/MS		-	-	0.4–7.8 (n = 155, 4%)	[39]
Rice, wheat	5 g sample, 10 mL 10% FA in water, 10 mL ACN, 4 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl, 1 g Na₃Cit, 0.5 g Na₂HCit 5 min shaking 5 min centrifugation SPE (Oasis Prime HLB)		LC-MS/MS Acquity HSS T3 C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in water/1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		2/-	-	-	[40]
Arecae semen	2 g sample, 15 mL 0.2% FA in ACN:water (84:16, v/v) 10 min UAE 10 min centrifugation S-µSPE (MycoSpin 400) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm) 0.1% FA in MeOH/2 mM AF in water		0.3/1.0	94–105	LOQ–2.2 (n = 20, 15%)	[41]
Plant-based milk alternatives	No sample treatment		ELISA		2/- (ELISA)	-	Soy (n = 7, 14%) Almond (n = 7, 0%) Oat (n = 14, 14%) Others (n = 26, 8%)	[42]
Plant-based milk alternatives	10 mL sample	LLE (EtAc) Dried and reconstituted in PBS SPE (VICAM AflaTest WB SR+ IAC) elution 3 mL MeOH	LC-MS/MS	Phenomenex C18 (100 mm × 3.0 mm, 5.0 µm) 0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in water/0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in MeOH	2/- (ELISA)	-		[42]
Edible oil, soy sauce, bean sauce	2 g sample, 20 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min orbital shaking 5 min centrifugation LLE (Hexane) 3 min centrifugation SPE (Oasis PRiME HLB) Dried and reconstituted		LC-HRMS Accucore aQ C18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm) 0.1% FA in water/0.1% FA in MeOH		0.3/1.0	71–104	Sesame oil LOQ–2.9 (n = 12, 8%)	[43]
Corn, millet, rice, soybean, oats	5 g sample, 25 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 30 min shaking Centrifugation SPE (COF@MIP) elution 5 mL ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD Waters Symmetry-C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) MeOH:water (80:20, v/v)		2/8	79–98	-	[44]
Rice bran, maize	1 g sample, 4 mL 1% FA in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 90 min vortex shaking 15 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Gemini C18 (100 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) 5 mM NH₄Ac + 1% HAC in water/5 mM NH₄Ac + 1% HAC in MeOH		0.5/2.5	92–105	Rice bran 2.8–272.3 (n = 125, 98%) Maize 0.3–17.9 (n = 125, 43%)	[45]
Dry-cured meat products	QuEChERS SPE defatting (Captiva EMR-Lipid) SPE (Easi-extract sterigmatocystin IAC)		LC-MS/MS Gemini (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm)		0.02/0.06	114	0.10–3.93 (n = 250, 4%)	[46]
Licorice	2 g sample, 20 mL ACN:water (84:16, v/v) 30 min UAE QuEChERS (4 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl, 1 g Na₃Cit, 0.5 g Na₂HCit) 30 min MSPE [Fe₃O₄@PDA/MIL-101(Cr)] Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) 5 mM NH₄Ac + 0.1% NH₃ in water/5 mM NH₄Ac + 0.1% NH₃ in MeOH		0.09/0.30	107–116	-	[47]
Long-ripened Grana cheese	10 g sample, 50 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 60 min rotary shaking Filtration, 2 mL PBS SPE (R-Biopharm-Rhône IAC) elution 6 mL ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Betasil RP-18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 5 µm) 0.2% FA in water/0.2% FA in ACN		0.05/0.15	87–92	LOQ–6.9 (n = 107, 94%)	[48]
Pseudostellariae Radix	ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 1 h shaking dSPE (PSA + C18 + MgSO₄)		LC-MS/MS Acquity HSS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 0.1% FA in water/0.1% FA in ACN		-	-	1.5–69.6 (n = 26, 38%)	[49]
Peanut butter, hazelnut butter, chocolate	5 g sample, 20 mL JSM FO 9704 15 min shaking 5 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS		0.01–0.02/0.05–0.15	94–100	0.2–2.2	[50]
Cocoa	7.5 g sample, 18 mL 0.5% HAc in ACN:water (7:3, v/v), 3 g NaCl 60 min shaking 15 min frozen at –70°C 10 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Titan C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.9 μm)		-	-	2.4–3.3 (n = 18, 11%)	[51]
Carob	1 g sample, 10 mL water, 10 mL 1% HAc in ACN 10 min UAE 10 min shaking, 1 g NaCl, 4 g MgSO₄ Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Titan C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.9 μm)		-	-	0.15–0.18 (n = 22, 14%)	[51]
Cheese	2.5 g sample, 5 mL 0.1% FA in ACN, 5 mL saturated MgSO₄ 30 min shaking 7 min centrifugation Defatting, 4 mL heptane 5 min shaking Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Gemini C18 (100 mm × 3.0 mm, 5.0 μm) 0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in water/0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in MeOH		0.01/0.04	100–106	0.08–4.99 (n = 11, 82%)	[52]
Goat, camel, and cow milk	1 mL sample, 1 mL 1% FA in ACN, 0.4 g MgSO₄, 0.1 g NaCl 10 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Acquity HSS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		-	-	LOQ–7.7 (n = 135, 14%)	[53]
Cereal-based baby food	2 g sample, 10 mL JSM FO 9704 15 min shaking 5 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS		0.02/0.07	100	0.02–0.50 (n = 85, 34%)	[54]
Rice, peanut, maize, sorghum	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v)		LC-MS/MS		-	-	Peanut 0.1–30 (n = 53, 40%) Maize 0.1–12 (n = 142, 26%) Rice 0.1–2.2 (n = 23, 48%) Sorghum 0.1–2.5 (n = 24, 12%)	[55]
Hazelnut kernels	25 g sample, 100 mL MeOH:water (8:2, v/v), 5 g NaCl 3 min extraction PBS dilution SPE (Easi-Extract Sterigmatocystin IAC) elution 1.5 mL ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-FLD ODS2 C18-300 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 3 μm) 120 mg/L KBr + 350 µL/L HNO₃ in ACN:MeOH:water (10:15:75, v/v)		1.3/4.2	81–87	9–101 (n = 30, 5%)	[56]
Herbs, herbal infusions	1 g herb sample, 5 mL water, 30 min shaking	5 mL 1% FA in ACN, 2 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl 1 h orbital shaking 15 min centrifugation dSPE (C18, Z-sep+) Dried and reconstituted	LC-MS/MS Kinetex C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 2.6 μm) 5 mM NH₄Ac in water:MeOH:HAc (94:5:1, v/v)/water:MeOH:HAc (2:97:1, v/v)		0.5–20/2.5–40	73–101	34–147 (n = 58, 19%)	[57]
Herbs, herbal infusions	1 g infusion sample, 50 mL hot water, 15 min shacking	5 min centrifugation 5 mL ACN, 2 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted			0.5–20/2.5–40	73–101	34–147 (n = 58, 19%)	[57]
Malt, beer	5 g malt sample, 2 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl, 15 mL ACN:water (75:25, v/v)	6 min centrifugation d-SPE (MgSO₄, C18) Dried and reconstituted	LC-HRMS/MS Kinetex Core-Shell F5 100 A (2.6 µm) 0.1% HAc + 4 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% HAc + 4 mM NH₄Ac in ACN		5/12	90–97	LOQ (n = 47, 0%)	[58]
Malt, beer	5 mL beer sample, 5 mL ACN, 2 g MgSO_4, 1 g NaCl	3 min UAE 5 min centrifugation dSPE (MgSO₄, C18) Dried and reconstituted			5/12	90–97	LOQ (n = 47, 0%)	[58]
Rice bran	20 g sample, 80 mL MeOH:water (8:2, v/v) 15 min UAE 5 min centrifugation DLLME (CHCl₃/water) 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Accucore C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm)		2.5/5.0	99	LOQ (n = 24, 0%)	[59]
Milled rice	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% FA in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 90 min shaking		LC-MS/MS Synergi Hydro-RP (100 mm × 3 mm, 2.5 µm) 1% FA and 10 mM NH₄Ac in water/MeOH		0.03/0.09	80	LOQ–7 (n = 200, 74%)	[60]
Dairy products	2 g sample, 8 mL 2% FA in ACN 30 min UAE 5 min centrifugation SPE (Captiva EMR-lipid) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Shiseido C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 3 μm) 0.1% FA in water/0.1% FA in MeOH		0.005/0.020	73	LOQ (n = 76, 0%)	[61]
Milling oats	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 90 min shaking S-µSPE (MycoSpin 400) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Eclipse Plus C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 µm) 0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		-/1	95	1–7 (n = 281, 2.3%)	[62]
Garlic	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) Vortex shaking		LC-MS/MS Gemini C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm)		0.05/0.14	90	3–32 (n = 36, 100%)	[63]
Coix seed	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% FA in ACN:water (7:3, v/v) 20 min vortex shaking 5 min centrifugation		LC-HRMS CORTECS C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.6 μm) 0.1% FA + 1 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% FA + 1 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		-/1	76–89	1–51 (n = 77, 30%)	[64]

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-: not indicated. SPE: solid-phase extraction; LOD: limit of detection; LOQ: limit of quantification; LC: liquid chromatography; MS: mass spectrometry; HMON@MIP: hollow-structured microporous organic networks coated with molecularly imprinted polymers; FD: fluorescence; GO-FAM-FRET: graphene oxide-aptamer-FD resonance energy transfer; QuEChERS: quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe; MSPE: magnetic SPE; DAD: diode array; UAE: ultrasound-assisted extraction; dSPE: dispersive SPE; SiO₂@mPMO-IL(im)₂: ionic liquid-functionalized mesoporous multipod silica; UHPLC: ultra-high-performance LC; PSA: primary secondary amine; ZIFs: zeolitic imidazolate frameworks; COF@MIP: MIPs-coated covalent organic framework nanoflowers; DLLME: dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction; HRMS: high-resolution MS; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ACN: acetonitrile; IAC: immunoaffinity column; TFA: trifluoroacetic acid; LLE: liquid-liquid extraction; FA: formic acid; AF: ammonium formiate; TEA: triethylamine; SIDA: stable isotope dilution assay; S-µSPE: spin micro SPE; PBS: phosphate buffer saline; FLD: fluorescence detector; MHNTs@MIP: magnetic halloysite nanotubes coated molecular imprinted polymer