Endocrine resistance is a major hurdle in the treatment of estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer. When abnormally regulated, molecular signals responsible for cellular proliferation, as well

The most common breast cancer (BC) subtypes are hormone-dependent, being either estrogen receptor-positive (ER⁺), progesterone receptor-positive (PR⁺), or both, and altogether comprise the luminal subtype. The mainstay of treatment for luminal BC is endocrine therapy (ET), which includes several agents that act either directly targeting ER action or suppressing estrogen production. Over the years, ET has proven efficacy in reducing mortality and improving clinical outcomes in metastatic and nonmetastatic BC. However, the development of ET resistance promotes cancer survival and progression and hinders the use of endocrine agents. Several mechanisms implicated in endocrine resistance have now been extensively studied. Based on the current clinical and pre-clinical data, the present article briefly reviews the well-established pathways of ET resistance and continues by focusing on the three most recently uncovered pathways, which may mediate resistance to ET, namely receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa Β ligand (RANKL)/receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa Β (RANK), nuclear factor kappa Β (NFκB), and Notch. It additionally overviews the evidence underlying the approval of combined therapies to overcome ET resistance in BC, while highlighting the relevance of future studies focusing on putative mediators of ET resistance to uncover new therapeutic options for the disease.

The development of endocrine resistance is a common reason for the failure of endocrine therapies in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. This review provides an overview of the different types

Endocrine resistant breast cancer metastasis continues to serve as a significant clinical challenge with high morbidity and mortality for patients. As the number of breast cancer cases continues to

Aim: Zinc is a key secondary messenger that can regulate multiple signalling pathways within cancer cells, thus its levels need to be strictly controlled. The Zrt, Irt-like protein (ZIP, SLC39A)

The majority of breast cancers express the estrogen receptor (ER) and for this group of patients, endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of systemic treatment. However, drug resistance is common and a

Aim: A model of progressively endocrine-resistant breast cancer was investigated to identify changes that can occur in signaling pathways after endocrine manipulation. Methods: The MCF7 breas

Obesity has dramatically increased over the past fifty years. In the last decade, it has been noted that augmented body mass, metabolic abnormalities, and the relevant “obese”

Adjuvant hormonal therapy is one of the most important treatments of hormone-receptor-positive breast cancer and includes selective estrogen receptor modulators, aromatase inhibitors, and luteinizin

Breast cancer (BC) is the most ubiquitous cancer in women. Approximately 70–80% of BC diagnoses are positive for estrogen receptor (ER) alpha (ERα). The steroid ho